Aims for Pan-Africanism
i) To promote unity and solidarity among the People of African Origin all over the world so as to form an integrative force to achieve political, cultural and economic liberation from the oppression, exploitation and all forms of injustice imposed to hem by the Whiteman.
ii) To liberate the People of African Origin all over the world from all sorts o: oppression, exploitation, segregation and humiliation inflicted on them by the whites since Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, slavery in the New World and colonialism on Africa.
iii) To revive the lost dignity, respect and culture of the people of African descent so as to restore their true identity and pride as unique race. These had been lost due to slave trade, slavery in Diaspora and colonialism in Africa.
iv) To eradicate colonialism, neo-colonialism and all sorts of imperialist manifestations purposely to win total independence for Africa and set Africans free.
v) To promote inter-continental cooperation under the frame works of international bodies like UNO and OAU. This was seen as a way to involve People of African Origin in international affairs forjoint struggle against oppression and segregation.
vi) To struggle for equal opportunities in the economy of USA, the Caribbean, and wherever people of African descent lived. That is, to give the people of African descent equal share of economies which they largely contributed to develop from the time of slavery in America.
vii) To campaign against racial segregation of the people of African descent in the world so as to win equality of the black people with other races in the world.
viii) To re-awaken the Blackman’s consciousness and awareness for him to realise his plight position in the world as an oppressed, exploited, humiliation and disrespected person by the white capitalist nations. This would arouse his desire to fight for his liberation.
Causes (origin) of Pan - Africanism
1. The bitter experience of a widely dispersed People of African Descent.
The people, who before the Atlantic slave trade were free citizens in their homelands in Africa, were scattered over the Caribbean and Americas for slavery. The experience of slavery under the Europeans was traumatising and so created feelings of reconnection with other black people.
2. The feelings of homelessness.
The Negro slaves and their descendants in the Caribbean and Americas felt homeless by being transferred away from their ancestral homeland in Africa to foreign lands for slavery. That feeling of homelessness motivated them to re-establish close union with fellow People of African Origin in other parts of the world, Africa in particular.
3. The American war of independence (1776) and Civil War (1861-65).
The two enlighten the blacks who by actively fighting in them, discovered their intellect talent and bravery. To convince them to join the struggle, the whites promised them equal rights and the end of slavery, the promises which however were not fulfilled. To achieve their goals, the blacks then raised concern of unity to fight for their rights and freedom.
4. The colonial experience.
Colonisation was a new form of slavery but this time in African itself. It led to losses of and by Africans to Europeans, forced labour on European farms and mines accompanied y unfair taxation and mistreatments. Thus the bondage of Africans in Diaspora and in Africa was a point of commonality on which the seeds of Pan-Africanism were planted.
5. The poor provision of social services.
The people of African descent under the Whiteman’s’ control in Diaspora and colonial Africa, were denied quality education and other social services which meant they were forced to live in poor life conditions. The alarming conditions of life raised the Blackman’s spirit of togetherness to fight for better living.
6. Role of black elite leaders and writers.
These among others were W. E. Du Bois, Martin Delany, H. S. Williams and Marcus Garvey who advocated for joint struggle for the Blackman’s liberation. They organised several conferences to popularise the movement and unite the black people worldwide to fight their oppression and low position in the world.
7. Development of racism.
Racial segregation of the People of African Origin was developed by the whites on the belief of their racial superiority over other world races. Indeed it was more humiliating for the People of African Origin in Diaspora and colonies that because of their African origin and black skin colour they were despised and branded an inferior race.
8. The strong feelings of brotherhood among the People of African Descent. Humiliation in cruel hands in foreign lands made Africans in Diaspora to start to feel deeply conscious not only of their common origin and destiny in Africa but also looked at Africa with admiration and decided that in only Africa could they find friendship, solace and hope.
Methods used in their Struggle
1. Through holding conferences.
This was the most remarkable method used by the Pan-African movement. Conferences were held in different cities of imperialist states such as Paris in 1919 and Manchester in 1945. They were held to popularise the cause of Pan-Africanism and through them the problems and strategies for liberation were discussed.
2. Institutionalisation of the Pan-African spirit.
This was in the formation of international organisations through which unity and liberation of the People of African Origin could be realised. The major one, was, formation of the Organization of African Unity OAU), in 1963. Others are the regional groupings like the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWA) and EAC formed for economic and political liberation of Africa.
3. Collective demonstration.
Demonstrations were also a means to fight the injustice done to the people of African origin. For example, when Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935, people of African descent demonstrated in different parts of the world like in Nigeria and New York to show the whites that the blacks were tired of their aggression and exploitation.
4. Mass media.
Pan-Africanism spread its causes, demands and enlightened the people by use of mass media through journals, newspapers, magazines and radios. For example; W. E. Dubois edited a magazine called “The Crisis” that was essential in spreading awareness and mobilising the people of African origin in the fight for their rights and freedom.
5. Use of art.
Through songs, plays and drama the People of African Origin express their discontent caused by oppression and exploitation by the whites. Black artists in the world especially in Jamaica expressed their bitterness through songs. Famous artists include Robert (Bob) Marley and others Rasta Fams who include Lucky Dube and Alfa Blondie from Africa.
6. Separatist methods.
The people of African origin in Diaspora and Africa formed their own (independent) institutions like religious organisations and schools as a means of raising black people’s personality, enlightenment, consciousness and awareness. These were important in uniting and encouraging the struggle against oppression and segregation.
7. Use of international bodies.
Pan-African leaders like Du Bois, Kwame Nkrumah and Julius Nyerere used international forum like the UNO and other bodies like NAM to express their discontent and invited the world for the rescue of the People of African Origin from the bondage of oppression and segregation by the Whiteman in Diaspora and colonial Africa.
Contribution of Pan-Africanism to the Rise of African Nationalism
2. The movement provided a forum or a platform where Africans could discuss the grievance caused by colonialism in all the congresses of the movement, the people of African origin discussed about implementing the spirit of oneness among all the black people all over the world.
3. The movement awakened the interests of the Africans to fight for independence. During the conferences of the pan African movement, members discussed a wide range of issues such as racial discrimination, unfair taxation policies and land alienation which they were facing under colonial rule.
4. The pan African movement played a big role in the rise of African nationalism because it stressed that; the fight for political independence by the Africans was a necessary step towards complete economic and social emancipation.
5. The pan African congress chose total liberation in their struggle for independence from Manchester; the activities of the movement were shifted to Africa following the independence of Ghana in 1957. The capital city of Ghana, Accra became the head quarters of pan Africanism where Kwame Nkrumah spear headed the independence of many African countries.
6. The movement represented the African continent in the international conferences especially in the United Nations wanted to ensure that all countries attain independence through the peaceful means.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PAN-AFRICANISM
The development of pan Africanism took place through summoning or holding various conferences in various countries of Europe. These conferences aimed at uniting people of African origin all over the world.
These conferences included the following;
1. The Pan African Congress of 1900 in London
This was the first conference which took place in London. The meeting was summoned by Henry Sylvester Williams from the West Indies. It was at this conference that Doctor Du Bois was introduced and he came to dominate the movement for almost half of the century.
The objectives of the congress included the following;
1. To provide a forum for people of African origin to protest against European exploitation and oppression.
2. To bring all people of African origin into closer relationship, this was so crucial in the struggle for their fundamental rights.
3. To appeal to the people to end the colonization and exploitation of the African people.
This conference was able to lay the foundation for future solidarity of all people of African origin and it planted the spirit of oneness of Africa all over the world.
2. The Paris Conference of 1919
This was the second pan African movement which was held in Paris. This conference was chaired by Du Bois. This conference took place at a time when the Paris Peace Conference is taking place. This was the conference which was signed after the First World War.
In this conference the following points were made:
1. The members recommended that an international law should be formed to protect the Africans.
2. The Africans should be guaranteed the right to education.
3. The conference also supported the abolition of slave trade and capital punishment.
3. The London Conference of 1921
This was the third conference that was held in three sessions, that is in London, Brussels and Paris. The conference emphasized the need to form political parties and the need for international harmony. In 1944, the students’ crew and politicians, led by George Pardmore, Wallace Jackson and Jomo Kenyatta formed a pan African federation.
4. The Pan African Congress of 1923
The fourth congress was held in London and Lisbon in 1923. The members in this congress maintained that the Africans should have a right to self government.
5. The Pan African Congress of 1927
This congress took place in New York in 1927; this was the last pan African congress which was directly linked to Dr. Bois and George Pardmore. There were conflicts which emerged between Marcus Garvey and Dr Bois. Marcus Garvey one of the founders of back to Africa movement wanted to deport all people of African origin back to Africa while Dr. Du Bois preferred to fight from exile.
6. The Manchester Conference of 1945
The pan African federation convened a radical congress in 1945 in Manchester. This was a Manchester conference of 1945. This conference was inspired by President Woodrow Wilson of the United States who declared the principle of self determination. This was the conference that demanded complete independence for the Africans. After the conference the intellectuals went back to Africa to mobilize the people for independence instead of remaining in Europe.
This was the conference that demanded complete independence for the Africans.The conference was attended by a number of nationalist leaders from Africa such as Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah, Nnamdi Azikiwe, Peter Abrahams and Wallace Jackson.
The members at this conference adopted the following resolutions
2. They also demanded universal suffrage and condemned colonialism
NOTE: The African nationalists such as kwame Nkrumah, kamuzu Banda and Nnamdi Azikiwe studied in the United States of America thus they had been enlightened about them to take an active role in the pan African movement.
Challenges faced by Pan- Africanism
From its foundation in the early period of the 20th Century, Pan-Africanism was beset with a number of challenges:
1. Lost original objectives.
Pan-African Movement was found with the agenda uniting the People of African origin in the struggle for their liberation from the whites’ domination, oppression and exploitation. After the independence in Africa and wining civil rights in America, the movement seem to have lost its original objective.
2. The question of nationalism against internationalism.
After independence, African countries developed individualistic tendency by being more concerned about their national matters than international matters that Pan-Africanism stood for. More of their efforts were put on building their economies and not international issues.
3. Divisions among the People of African Origin.
From the start the movement leaders and their followers differed in opinion, ideology and strategies to be employed in their liberation. For example, while W. E Du Bois advocated for the fight for civil rights in the USA, Marcus Garvey campaigned for Back to Africa. Similarly, while Julius Nyerere called for the gradual process through regional integrations for the creation of the United State of Africa, Kwame Nkrumah advocated for immediate action after independence.
4. Colonial legacy.
Colonialism divided Africans along religious, tribal and regional lines. More so, it tied colonies to their metropolitan states for instance Anglophone and Francophone countries. The divisions are maintained today by imperialist socio-political unions such as the Common Wealth for Britain and former colonial empire and French Community for France and her colonial empire. These unions consolidate divisions on African states.
5. Opposition from imperialists.
The whites and their governments interrupted measures taken by Pan-Africanism to liberate people of African origin and to keep Africans under their domination and exploitation. The US government for instance denied travel passes to Afro-Americans who aspired to attend the 1919 Paris Pan-African Conference and visas for the 1927 New York Conference. Likewise British government denied visas to those who wanted to attend the London 1921 conference. These governments restricted demonstrations, meetings and rallies of Pan-African activists.
6. Influence of neo-colonialism.
This suffocates efforts for Africa’s unity and liberation. Imperialist powers maintain divisions through the socio-political unions like the Common Wealth and French Community. Neo-colonial powers overthrow strong exponents of Pan-Africanism like Kwame Nkrumah was overthrown in 1966 and Muammar Gaddafi in 2011. Also incite conflicts between African states.
7. Formation of parallel organisations.
African states are members of organisations that have similar or related agenda of fighting against imperialism like the Pan-African Movement. Such organisation include the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the South-South Commission, African Union and regional integrations. Such organisations have indeed submerged Pan-Africanism.
8. Diversity of People of African origin.
The people of African origin in Africa are made of numerous ethinicises, religion and culture. This hampers unity within and between countries. Such loyalties are frustrating not only African continental unity but as well national unity in many African states like Kenya.
9. Violence and terror.
Pan-African Movement was no exception to violent undertakings of white communities and terror movements notably the Ku Klux Klan group. For example, between 1920s and 1950s the movement was affected by many races riots which were accompanied violence in which thousands of the people of African Origin were killed.
Relationship between Black Solidarity, Back to Africa and Pan-Africanism
The Black Solidarity, Back to Africa and Pan-Africanism have the following in common; All of them were forms of struggle waged by the people of African origin to liberate themselves from the white’s domination, oppression and segregation. They looked upon changing the history of the Blackman by winning the desired freedom from all sorts of oppression including colonialism in Africa hence advocated for self-government of Africans.
All of them involved the African continent by calling for the unity of all people of the African race. For example the Back to Africa Movement aimed to shift the black peoples to Africa, likewise Pan-Africanism demanded for end of colonisation in the continent.
All the three originated in America. They were established by Afro-American leaders in America and the Caribbean like W. E. Dubois, H. W. Sylvester and Marcus Garvey who championed the black people’s struggle in America.
All aimed at unifying the people of African origin and building brotherly feeling among them basing on their common African ancestral origin and the problem they encountered in the hands of capitalist and imperialist.
The movements share common historical background. All are traced from the long history of slave trade across the Atlantic and slavery in the New World that resulted into existence of black people in the New World.
The three succeeded in attaining some of their goals. For example the Black Solidarity produced the Back to Africa Movement and Pan-Africanism; the Back to Africa Movement brought some Blacks to Africa and; Pan-Africanism managed to mobilise nationalist struggle for independence of African countries.
Faced strong opposition from the US government and the capitalist. The government fought the movements in favour of the capitalist who wanted the blacks to remain a low status people for continued exploitation. Not only that, but also encountered terrorist movements like the Ku Klux Klan which assassinated many blacks and their leaders.
Differences between the Black Solidarity and Back to Africa Movement and Pan- Africanism
Black Solidarity and Back to Africa Movement were more concerned about the people of African origin in America and Caribbean while the Pan-African Movement is concerned with all black and coloured people in the whole world.
Black Solidarity and Back to Africa Movement were short lived. They failed to live beyond the death of their founding fathers. On the other hand, Pan-Africanism has lived longer and indeed is into existence through international frameworks like African Union.
Pan-Africanism succeeded in many of its objectives like holding conferences and eradicating colonialism in Africa while Black Solidarity and Back to Africa Movement failed in most of their objectives. For example only a small fraction of the black people was moved to Africa as majority opted to stay abroad and fight for civil rights.
Pan-Africanism faced stronger opposition than the Black Solidarity and Back to Africa Movement. For example while European countries denied the blacks visas to attend some conferences like 1919 Paris conference, USA also denied them to attend the New York conference of 1927. The Back to Africa Movement was to a certain extent failed by the black people themselves by refusing to shift to Africa.
Pan-Africanism operated worldwide by holding conference in many cities of different countries like in London in 1923, Paris in 1919, New York in 1927, Manchester in 1945 and Accra in 1958 while the other movements operated mainly in US and the Caribbean.
Pan-African Movement shift to Africa while the Black Solidarity and Back to Africa movements remained tied to the Americas and Caribbean. From 1958 with the Accra Conference, Pan-Africanism operated from Africa while the other movements did not.
THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT
The birth of the movement is traced back in the American Civil War (1861-1865) but reached the climax during the 1950s and 1960s. During the time, African Americans organised groups and worked to change the unpleasant conditions against them in the United States. Best-known leaders of the Civil Rights Movement were William E. Du Bois, Martin Luther King Junior and Malcolm X. The major African American civil rights groups were;
- The National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) by William Edward Du Bois found in 1910.
- Black Nationalism Movement of Malcolm X
- Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) founded in 1957 and King was its president.
- Black Power Movement emerged in 1966 under the leadership of Stokeley Carmichael. The movement was militant and encouraged robust self-defence by African Americans.
- The Black Panther Party was found in 1966 in Oklahoma, California, by Huey Newton, Leroy Eldridge Cleaver and Bobby Searle. It was also militant in nature.
- The Nation of Islam Movement found by Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X
Malcolm X or El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz
(19/5/1925 - 21/2/1965), was an African-American Muslim minister and a human and civil rights activist. He has been described as one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history. He was a courageous advocate for the rights of blacks. He is credited with raising the self-esteem of black Americans and reconnecting them with their African heritage. Born Malcolm Little, but while in prison, he became a member of the nation of Islam, changing his last name to X because, “Little” was the name that the white slave master had imposed upon his paternal forebears. Charismatic and eloquent, Malcolm became an influential leader of the Nation of Islam, which combined Islam with Black Nationalism and sought to encourage disadvantaged young blacks searching for confidence in segregated America. His moving speeches and commitment inspired many African Americans who felt that Malcolm X articulated their complaints concerning inequality better than other civil rights movement. He emphasized Pan-Africanism, black self-determination and black self-defence. He was assassinated on February 21, 1965.
Background of the Struggle
From the earliest years of European settlement in North America, the whites enslaved and oppressed the People of African Descent. Although the Civil War (1861-65) brought about the abolition of slavery, a harsh system of white supremacy persisted thereafter.
In the early 20th C, African Americans mainly in the Southern states of USA were banned from associating with whites in public areas such as schools, hospitals, libraries, homes, trains, hotels, and recreation halls. Some recreational areas posted signs, “Negroes and Dogs Not Allowed.” Racial discrimination deprived African Americans of decent jobs and schools and rights of citizenship, including voting. Intimidation and violence, including lynching, by the Whiteman remained an ever-present threat.
Martin Luther King Jr. (January 15, 1929 — April 4, 1968) was to the Reverend Martin Luther King Sr. His legal name was Michael King but changed to Martin Luther King Jr. in respect of the German Martin Luther who led the Reformation. King was an American Baptist minister and activist who became one of the most visible spokesperson and leader in the Civil Rights Movements in the 1950s to 60s. His moving speeches and commitment inspired many African Americans. He urged them to work to end racial discrimination and toward obtaining full and equal rights for all. The most famous of his speeches was the “I have a dream” speech. King led a nationwide movement, organizing, boycotts, marches and sit-ins to demand equal justice before the law. He was assassinated on April 4, 1968.
Origin of Civil Rights Movements
The Civil Rights campaigns are traced to a number of factors;
1. The problems encountered by the blacks in America.
African Americans were denied civil rights and faced all kinds of agonizing abuse of oppression, exploitation, humiliation and segregation at all life levels in the US. This intolerable situation motivated them fight for civil rights by which they could win freedom.
2. The role of the 1789 French revolution.
This revolution spread the ideals of change, that is, equality, liberty and fraternity and thus inspired African Americans to fight for equal rights. It also taught them how to fight oppression and was significant in the abolition of slave trade.
3. The American Civil War, 1861-65.
In this war the blacks fought on the side of the union government having been promised full and equal political, economic and social rights. Although the Civil War brought about the abolition of slavery, a harsh system of white oppression of the blacks persisted thereafter. The situation made the blacks realise that they can win equality by fighting on their own.
4. Constitutional amendments.
The 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments of the US constitution outlawed slavery, laid principles of racial equality, and gave all US citizens including the Afro-American equal protection of the law. Such achievements motivated them to fight for constitutional protection and consolidate civil rights when things turned against them later.
5. Role of the previous black people’s movements.
Civil rights movements were influenced by the experience other Blacks’ movements such as the Black Solidarity, Pan-African and Back to Africa movements. For instance the failure of the Back to Africa Movement to move majority African Americans to Africa meant that they had no other alternative besides fighting for civil rights in America.
6. Rise of elite black leaders.
Outstanding African American leaders like Dr. William E. B. Dubois, Malcolm X and Martin Luther king Junior emerged with determination to fight for African American full civil rights. They formed movements such as the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) and the Black Nationalism Movement through which they actively campaigned for the rights of the blacks in America.
7. Rise of socialism.
The spread of socialist ideals that advocate for equality and end of exploitation of man by man after the 1917 Russian Revolution motivated the blacks to fight for equal rights in the US. More so, the attack of USA by the communist USSR over oppression and segregation of the blacks in USA motivated the struggle for civil rights.
8. Rise of the Blackman’s consciousness.
Awareness spread among the Afro-Americans through education and by campaigns of black elite leaders, religious groups and socialist propaganda that enlightened them to know their rights. As the blacks knew their rights, they became recharged to fight for them.
9. Independence to the colonies.
The success to liberation struggles in the colonies inspired African Americans to increase the demand for equal rights in America. So, as Asian and African states gained independence in 1960s, African Americans resented their own unfair treatment more than ever.
Objectives of the Civil Rights Movement
i) Fight for equal citizenship rights and legal citizenship recognition of the African Americans for equal treatment and constitutional protection accorded to every American citizen.
ii) Focused on eliminating legal segregation against African Americans in all fields or places like public accommodations and buses and workplaces.
iii) To demand for equal employment and economic opportunities for the African Americans to participate in the economic field of United States without discrimination.
iv) To help African Americans and other minority groups living below poverty line acquire equal public education, health and proper housing to improve their living conditions.
v) To form an acceptable integration between the black and white Americans for peaceful co-existence and create a united America where the blacks and whites lives in harmony.
vi) To completely end all forms of slavery and poor working conditions of the African Americans in America through achievement of black peoples freedom and rights.
vii) To stimulate African American consciousness to help them be aware of their rights and gain a sense in black pride and cultural identity as well.
Methods used in the Struggle
In defiance to segregation, discrimination and denial of civil rights, African-American activists adopted a combined strategy of mass action that typified the movement from 1960.
1. The use of boycotts.
African Americans rejected public services like buses, restaurants and stores where they were segregated. For instance, after an African American woman, Rosa Parks, had been arrested on December 1, 1955 because she refused to get up out of her seat for a white person to sit down on a bus on Montgomery, Alabama, a boycott of Montgomery buses was started.
2. Sit-ins campaigns.
By this technique African Americans gathered in facilities where segregation against them was done. The protesters were encouraged to dress well, sit quietly, and occupy every seat of such services like restaurants, parks, beaches, libraries and theatres. Fr example, in July 1958, the NAACP Youthful Council sponsored sit-ins at the lunch counter of a Dockum Drug Store in Wichita, Kansas.
3. Freedom Rides.
The rides were journeys organised by civil rights activists who rode interstate buses into segregated southern USA, in order to challenge segregated buses. The tactic was to force for interracial pair sitting on adjoining seats in segregated buses. The first Freedom Ride began in 1961 led by James Farmer. With 13 riders, the ride left Washington, D.C. on 4/5/1961, and was scheduled to arrive in New Orleans on May 17 where a civil rights rally was planned.
4. Street marching and demonstrations.
The marches were organised by civil rights organisations to reveal the injustices suffered by African Americans and push the government to grant them equal rights. For example, in 1963, civil rights activists, Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin organised what came to be known as The Great March on Washington. The estimated participants varied from 200,000 to 300,000. The purpose of the march was to advocate for civil and economic rights for African Americans. At the march, Martin Luther King Jr., standing in front of the Lincoln Memorial, delivered the historic “I have a Dream” speech calling for an end of racism.
5. Violent methods.
Afro-American organisations like the Black Power and Black Panther movements used armed self-defence against oppressive discriminative laws like Jun Crow Laws, the whites’ terrorist organisations - the Ku Klux Klan and police that brutally attacked the blacks. The movements aimed at protecting civil rights activists against brutal acts like lynching, beatings and assassinations.
6. Open public rallies and meetings.
Rallies and mass meetings mobilised mass public support and displayed blacks’ strength and demands. This was an active strategy mostly used by Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. One of the most remembered rally was of 1963 attended by 200,000 to 300,000 people and on which Martin Luther King Jr. Gave the historic “I have a Dream” speech that called for the end of racism in America. Among the demands aired out in the rally were full civil rights laws, fair employment, decent housing, the right to vote and adequate integrated education.
7. Through legal actions (petitions).
African American activists through their organisations like the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) delivered petition to courts of law and congress seeking for legal intervention against unfair treatment and laws against African Americans. For example the NAACP reported a case against school segregation. Afterwards, the court ruled that segregated schools were unconstitutional.
8. Mass media.
African Americans published own: magazines like “The Crisis” established by the NAACP with William Edward Du Bois as its editor. Mass media helped in raising African American consciousness of their rights and raised the spirit and mobilised them for civil rights struggle. They also spread the news for African American concerns far.
9. Use of art.
Numerous songs and popular cultural expressions associated with African American revival appeared at the time of fighting for civil rights. For example in 1968, African American artist James Brown released a song “Say It Loud — I’m Black and I’m Proud.” Such works inspired and revived African Americans’ self-determination and dignity.
Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (4/2/1913 - 24/10/2015) was an activist in the Civil Right Movement whom the US Congress called the first lady of civil rights and the mother of the freedom movement. Parks was at the centre of the Montgomery bus boycott to resist bus segregation. On December 1, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, Rosa Parks refused to obey bus driver James F. Blake’s order to give up her seat to a white passenger, after the whites-only section was filled. Parks was arrested and charged with a violation of segregation law of the Montgomery City code. This stirred the Montgomery bus boycott that lasted for 381 days that eventually succeeded when segregation in public buses was made unconstitutional. She became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation. She organised and collaborated with civil rights leaders, including Edgar Nixon and Martin Luther King Jr.
Achievement of the Civil Right Movement
The civil rights movement was a heroic episode in American history. The movement witnessed the passage of major federal legislation in the 1960s. From the late 1950s the following achievements were attained:
1. The Civil Rights bill of 1963.
This was submitted by President F. D. Kennedy to the congress. The bill was a legal push for equal citizenship rights to African Americans. It formed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that was passed by President Johnson. To add on that, Kennedy appointed the USA’s first African American ambassador.
2. The Civil Rights Act of 1964.
In 1964, President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act that expressly banned discrimination based on race, colour. religion, sex, or national origin in employment practices and public facilities such as schools, workplaces and restaurants.
3. The Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Pressure by civil rights activist, pushed president Johnson to introduce the Voting Rights Act (1965) to try and make sure that African Americans exercised their right to vote. The Act restored and protected voting rights for minorities.
4. Right to own or purchase property.
President Johnson followed up the Voting Rights Act (1965) with another Civil Rights Act, that is, the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which made it illegal to discriminate in selling property or letting accommodation.
5. Abolition of racial segregation in schools in 1954.
In 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled out that it was unconstitutional for public schools to be segregated by race. That is the court rejected separate white and coloured school system.
6. Law against job discrimination.
In June 1964, President Johnson signed into law a bill that outlawed job-discrimination in both public and private sectors. The law also authorized creation of a new agency, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to check on the vice of job discrimination.
7. It raised African American self-confidence.
They acquired confidence in their ability to organize and effect political change. They gained more of a sense in black pride, cultural identity and strength, notably in the fields of music, dance, film, and sports where they excelled over the whites with men like Muhammad Au, the world boxing champion.
8. Rise in leadership ranks.
As success to the civil rights struggles, African Americans have won equal political rights in political field. Some have served in higher government offices. Prominent figures include Collin Powel, who became the African American chief of staff of USA army and led that army in the Gulf war of 1990-1991 and later became the first African American Secretary of States. Condoleezza Rice became the second black and first woman secretary of state of the USA. Above all in 2008, Barrack Hussein Obama became a more celebrated history maker when he was elected the first African American president of USA.
9. Consolidated unity.
Civil rights movements like the Black Nationalism, Black Power Movement and their leaders like Malcolm X and Martin Luther King won massive rallying unity and support from African Americans and some white sympathisers to civil rights cause from their inspirational speeches and mobilisation and strategies like boycotts and sit-ins.
Putting into laws the civil rights was not a guarantee that African Americans would automatically be respected and treated equally. There was bitter white hostility to the reforms, and the problem was to make sure that the Acts were carried out. With all efforts racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans and other minorities persists to date in America.
Problems facing the Civil Rights Movements
The successes achieved by civil rights movement passed through thick and thin. Several hardships had to be overcome to attain success.
1. The Ku Klux Klan.
The Klan began as a secret society formed on Christmas Eve of 1865, in Tennessee to intimidate African Americans’ fight for equality. They carried out campaigns of threats and terror against the blacks. Lynching, beatings, and feathering became commonplace. Many Afro-American activists like Medgar Evers, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. died of the Ku Klux Klan.
2. Divisions among civil rights activists.
They differed in strategy and ideology. While some like the Black Panther Party called for use of violent means, others like Martin Luther King Jr. advocated for non-violent methods. Ideologically, as some like Malcolm X wanted the creation of independent black state, others like King wanted integration with the whites.
3. The hand of American government.
The government particularly in southern states passed laws such as the “Jim Crow laws” to maintain the whites’ supremacy and segregation. These severe laws restricted African American people’s rights; depriving them of voting; pinning them to worst and lowest-paid jobs; excluding them from schools attended by whites.
4. The role of the American capitalists.
The capitalist in America sabotaged African Americans’ efforts to win civil rights. They influenced the government to pass decisions against African Americans. The whites especially in southern states wanted the People of African Origin to remain low class people tied in slavery and serve them as cheap labour.
5. The economic weakness of African Americans.
The people of African Origin in the US were largely economically poor that they failed to raise enough resources to financially support the civil rights movements’ activities like mass rallies and publications. Their low financial status made them depend on the whites hence could not easily fight segregation.
6. The small number of African Americans.
Compared to the whites, African Americans were few that were easily absorbed by the majority whites. Their small number made them weak to stand firm against inequality. It as well made it difficult for US government (congress) to pass decisions in their favour as the whites were the majority voters.
7. The low education status of majority African Americans.
African Americans were mostly denied education and the few educated, mostly received poor education. Due to this their awareness and consciousness was kept low that they could hardly know their rights and stand firm to protest inequality.
8. Racial segregation and discrimination still persists in America.
This is worse in southern states where African Americans still face poor reception in social services like education and health and public accommodations like houses and buses. Worse, even during the presidency of Barrack Obama, African Americans suffered open discrimination and violence with open police shootings that killed some of them.
Change of attitude in Favour of Civil Rights
Starting from the late 1940s American politicians started changing their outlook towards African Americans. As a result of internal and external pressure, this shift in position began with President Harry Truman, then his successors notably, F. D. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson who showed willingness to push for equal rights for all American citizens.
1. The Cold War.
This was a major factor for the US government to support civil rights legislations. In the Cold War, the USSR accused the USA for its hypocrisy in portraying itself the “leader of the free world,” when so many of its citizens, the African American were subjected to severe racial discrimination and violence. To silence the communist accusations, the US government had to grant civil rights to African Americans.
2. Excluding African American from top jobs was waste of talent and expertise. Expansion of African American elite and middle class mainly in northern states where a number of African Americans were granted chance to have good education and skills was a way to success for civil rights. Their talents were usefully needed to serve the United States.
3. Democratic assertions.
The USA could hardly claim to be genuinely democratic country and leader of the “free world” when 10 per cent of its population were denied voting and other rights. This gave her foes like the USSR a chance to condemn her as a “consistent oppressor of under-privileged peoples”. The American government wanted that excuse removed. The increasing pressure from civil rights campaigns.
4. The period after the World War II witnessed an upsurge in pursuit for civil rights among African Americans. It was important for that reason to do something to calm the African American population, who were becoming more vocal in their demands for civil rights.
5. Rapid growth of nationalism in Asia and Africa.
In early 1940s India and Indonesia were on the point of gaining independence and as well liberation campaigns were increasingly growing stronger in Africa. These new states would turn against the USA and move towards communism if American whites continued their unfair treatment of African Americans.
6. Pressure from international bodies.
These bodies, notably, the United Nations of which African and Asian countries were members attacked the US for its practices of discrimination and violence against African Americans and other minorities. In respect of human rights, the UN pressed US government to protect minority groups by granting them civil rights.
7. Some politicians and a section of the white populace were worried by their conscience; They felt that it was not morally right to treat fellow human beings in such an unfair way. This group of politicians pushed for legislation of civil rights to support the efforts of African American activists.
8. The hard long struggle produced some desirable fruits.
The zenith was reached in 2008 when Barrack Hussein Obama was elected first African American president. This is something which one could not expect in those days when discrimination was severe. Though no one of the profound civil rights activists like Dr. William Edward Du Bois, Martin Luther King Junior and Malcolm X was alive to celebrate the remarkable achievement, it will stay unforgettable to all people of African origin who had to endure segregation, discrimination, exploitation and humiliation in the hands of the whites for centuries. Indeed it opened the new chapter for black people’s history and the history of America in general.
Sample — Revision Questions
1. Explain six reasons behind the rise of Atlantic Slave Trade. (NECTA 2014)
2. Analyse six problems encountered by the People of African Origin in the New World (NECTA 2013).
3. Examine six reasons that led to the enslavement of Africans to the America and the Caribbean during the mercantile period. (NECTA — Private Candidates 2015)
4. Compare and contrast Black Solidarity and Pan-Africanism. (Give three similarities and three differences). (NECTA 2016)
5. Explain three prejudices which faced People of African Origin in the New World and show their three legal struggles which brought about equal education. (NECTA 2017)
6. Account for the origin and problems of the People of African Origin in the New World.
7. Trace the genesis of the people of African origin in the New World.
8. Assess the historical essence of the People of African Origin in the New World.
9. To what extent did the Back to Africa achieved its stated goals
10. Explain six factors which hindered the success of the “Back to Africa Movement.” (NECTA 2015)
11. Discuss the roles of Marcus Garvey towards the struggle for liberating the Blacks.
12. Discuss the relationship between Black solidarity, Pan Africanism and the Back to Africa movement
13. Account for the origin and objectives of the Civil rights movement in USA.
14. The Civil Rights Movement by the Blacks in America was a struggle for genuine reasons. Account for 6 hardships faced during the struggle.
15. Discuss how the KU KLAX KLAN and other reasons hampered the struggle for civil rights in America
16. Appraise six achievements of the Civil Rights Movements in the USA (NECTA 2012)
17. Examine the mechanism used by people of African origin in their struggle for liberation in America.
18. Analyse the problems faced by the People of African Origin in the struggle for equality.
19. Account for the success of the People of African Origin in the New World in the struggle for liberation.
20. Account for change of attitude towards African Americans in the USA.
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