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1. PHYSICS 1 FORM SIX MOCK MARKING SCHEME Download Marking Scheme
2. PHYSICS 2 FORM SIX MOCK MARKING SCHEME Download Marking Scheme_____________________________
3. CHEMISTRY 1 FORM SIX MOCK MARKING SCHEME Download Marking Scheme
4. CHEMISTRY 2 FORM SIX MOCK MARKING SCHEME Download Marking Scheme_____________________________
5. BIOLOGY 1 FORM SIX MOCK MARKING SCHEME Download Marking Scheme
6. BIOLOGY 2 FORM SIX MOCK MARKING SCHEME Download Marking Scheme_____________________________
7. ADVANCED MATHS 1 FORM SIX MOCK MARKING SCHEME Download Marking Scheme
8. ADVANCED MATHS 2 FORM SIX MOCK MARKING SCHEME Download Marking Scheme
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9. BASIC APPLIED MATHS (BAM)FORM SIX MOCK MARKING SCHEME Download Marking Scheme
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10. GEOGRAPHY 1 FORM SIX MOCK MARKING SCHEME Download Marking Scheme
11. GEOGRAPHY 2 FORM SIX MOCK MARKING SCHEME Download Marking Scheme
______________________________12. GENERAL STUDIES GS FORM SIX MOCK MARKING SCHEME Download Marking Scheme
Factors Responsible for the Rise of the Buganda
1. Centralization of power.
The Kabaka governed the political organ and was considered as overall ruler. All political power was concentrated in his hands. He appointed all leaders on merit and dismissed all chiefs. His decision was final and binding. There was a hierarchy in administration, whereby there were a number of chiefs below the Kabaka. They helped to spread Kabaka’s authority throughout the Kingdom. The Kabaka’s throne was hereditary but there was no royal family/clan
2. Organized Administrative System.
The Kabaka governed the Kingdom with assistance of advisory council (Lukiiko). The council constituted the Prime Minister (Katikiro), the treasure (Muhanika) and the Chief justice (Mugema) as well as country chiefs; all these were Kabaka’s nominees. The legislative council gave advice to the Kabaka and enacted laws.
3. Stable military machinery.
Kabaka established strong and well disciplined army for the sake of maintaining political stability in the state and defend the kingdom from external aggression. The Kabaka used army to maintain law and order, to pin down the rivals powers and pursued expansionist policy.
4. Bureaucratic system of government.
The Bureaucratic system was employed in order to ensure effective administration of the Kingdom; whereby the whole of Buganda was divided into two countries (Gomborola), the sub–countries into parishes (Miluka) and finally perishes into sub–parishes. At all level the chief were Kabaka’s appointees.
5. Kabaka’s marriage in each clan.
The Buganda Kingdom had approximately 52 clans, each with its own leadership. These provided the basis for the political unity for the whole administration of the Kingdom. For the sake of political harmony in the Kingdom, Kabaka married almost from every important clan. Hence intermarriages were a political weapon and created the possibility of getting Kabaka from any clan.
6. Agriculture.
Good climate and fertile soil favored crop cultivation. Due to the availability of goods, the population of the Kingdom began in tinkles and became flooded. Also some of them engaged in livestock keeping (pastoralism).
7. Trade.
The Buganda Kingdom developed trading contacts with he neighbors that were under governance of Kabaka. Because the Buganda were excellent bark clothes manufactures they participated in commercial activities by exchanging bark clothes for items such as iron tools and with the Bunyoro and cow , cattle, groundnuts and simsim with the iteso , langi and Ankelo.
NB: It is clear stated that the second half of 19 th C, Buganda was one of the highly centralized Kingdom in the intercontinental region, Kingdom that had sound organization in the field of politics economic and social set up.
Buganda Warriors
2. Decentralised States
Decentralised states were state organisation without a well-defined and complex centralised system of government. They were chieftainships (chiefdoms). They were societies that transformed from mere Clan Organisations to comprise a number of clans or communities. They were under Chiefs who were mostly appointed from the dominant Clan Heads.
The leader/chiefs’ position was often not hereditary. He was chosen from clan elders/heads by a council of elders basing on his reputation; excellent leadership and wisdom qualities and wealth. The powers of the chief were checked by the council of elders. Such societies included; the Yao, Nyamwezi, Sukuma, Kikuyu, Makonde (East Africa), Lozi, Shona and Luba (central Africa)
Characteristics of Decentrailised States
a) Leadership was not hereditary.
Leaders were chosen by the clan councils by merit and considerable reputation on their leadership, wisdom and good judgment skills. Elected leaders could even be replaced if he proved incompetent or became unpopular.
b) There were no standing armies.
The defence of the society was done by all able- bodied men of the society. Standing armies were not necessary because wars were very scarce due to the fact that these societies hardly involved themselves in expansionism.
c) There was no centralised authority to control society’s affairs. Means of production like land and labour were communally owned. Members of the society regarded themselves equal. No one would therefore rise up to assume supreme powers over the others.
d) Decentralised societies had low population. This was due to low productive forces. The low population limited the rise of social differentiations and thus facilitated the communal living due high availability of resources like land - resources were not scarce to give way to classes.
e) These societies were more democratic. In the society’s general assembly, decisions were passed by the majority vote. This was different from the centralised societies where the monarch made the final decision and their words were law and final.
f) The clan councils of elders and the society’s General Assembly were the two bodies that governed the affairs of the state. The General Assembly was above the Clan Heads and the clan council hence the two were answerable to the General Assembly.
g) The clan elders were responsible to solve internal conflicts. Nonetheless, if case became more difficult for them, it was referred to the general assembly. Nevertheless, conflicts and crimes were limited by collective responsibility using society’s sanctions. If a member of a clan committed a crime against a member of another clan, the clan members handed him to the offended clan to be punished.
h) They encouraged intermarriages. Members of the same clan were in most cases not allowed to marry each other and instead people were to marry from other related clans.
Nyamwezi Warriors
The Role of the Long Distance Trade in the Formation of States in East Africa
The long distance trade in East Africa refers to the type of trade that took place between the people of the interior of East Africa and the ones from the coast. The main participants were the Yao, Kamba, Nyamwezi and Baganda from the interior and the Arabs and Swahili traders from the coast. The main items traded were guns, beads and glassware that came from the coast and slaves, ivory, tortoise shells and copper from the interior of East Africa. The main medium of exchange was batter trade system, which is exchange of goods for goods.
The long distance trade provided a crucial role in the formation of states in East Africa as follows:
1. Accumulation of wealth.
Those African chiefs who monopolized trade in pre–colonial African accumulated a lot of wealth that was used to build state in East Africa such as Buganda and Bunyoro. Kings such as Mutesa of Buganda, Kabalega of Bunyoro and Nyungu ya Mawe of Ukimbu accumulated a lot of wealth that was used to build strong states.
2. Introduction of guns.
The long distance trade led to the introduction of guns into the interior of East Africa. These guns were used to strengthen armies that were used for conquest and expansion. Most of the states in East Africa were established through conquest and expansion.
3. Active participation in agriculture.
The long distance trade encouraged people to participate actively in agriculture to produce goods that can be exchanged during the trade. Active participation in agriculture increased agricultural production which accommodated in high population, this contributed to the formation of states. States such as Buganda, Karagwe and Bunyoro were formed in those areas where agriculture was active.
4. Emergency of strong leaders.
The long distance contributed to the emergence of strong leaders such as Mkwawa of the Hehe and Mutesa of Buganda. These leaders played a fundamental role in the emergence of states in East Africa by uniting the people
5. Migrations.
The long distance trade encouraged migrations in East Africa. People moved from one place to another to take part in exchange of goods. The migration of people contributed to permanent settlement that had a role to play in state formation.
6. Development of towns.
The long distance trade contributed to the development of towns in East Africa, these include Ujiji, Tabora and Bagamoyo. These areas acted as trading centers therefore they attracted many people thus contributed to the state formation.
7. Growth of trade routes.
The long distance trade contributed to the development of trade routes in East Africa. These routes opened the interior of East Africa.
An illustration of slaves being transported by Arab traders in Buganda Kingdom in the 1800s. The first foreigner to reach Buganda was an Arab trader named Ahmed bin Ibrahim.
ISLAM IN STATE FORMATION DURING THE 19th C
Islam is an Arabic word which means: Obedience and peace. The two meanings describe what Islam (Islamic Religion) means and stand for, that is, complete submission to the will of God and to be at peace with all the creatures of God. In terms of belief; Islam firmly stands for the belief in the unity of God (belief in only one God who has no partners) and Muhammad as God’s messenger and prophet. Islam believes in all God sent messengers and prophets mentioned in scriptures like the Qur’an and Bible and in Muhammad as the seal of all God’s prophets.
Islam and its influence were very significant in state formation in Africa, especially in North, West and East Africa. In the 19th C, however, Islam was more significant in the emergence of new states in West Africa (Western Sudan) than other regions of the content. Virtually, all the new states that appeared in West Africa after 1800 were largely as a result of the influence of Islam than other factors. This influence was by far through the 19th C Muslim Movements (“Jihad”) of Western Sudan.
The states that include the Sokoto Caliphate, Tukulor Empire, the states of Masina, Segu and the Moss and the states of Futa Toro, Futa Bondu and Futa Jalon were a product of Muslim Revolutions of the 19th C.
THE MUSLIM MOVEMENTS (“JIHADS”) IN THE 19THC WEST AFRICA
The word Jihad is an Arabic word whose root word is “Juhud” meaning; effort or struggle — “Juhudi” the Kiswahili version. In that sense, the term Jihad means to strive or to struggle. In the spiritual sense of the true teachings of Islam, the ultimate Jihad is self-reformation, that is, individuals’ struggle to excel in righteousness (virtue).
Jihad also means a holy war for the defence of faith. In the early period of Islam, during the lifetime of the Holy Prophet of Islam, Muhammad and his successors, when Muslims wielded the sword. it was only in self-defence or in the defence of others’ I religious freedom — never to force others to convert to Islam. Therefore Muslims never raised the sword except against those who first raised it themselves against them (Muslims) and most mercilessly killed innocent and pious men, women and children. That is to say, while Islam is falsely supposed to be spread by the sword, the fact of the matter is that Islam was never imposed on a person.
Islam clearly forbids the use of force or coercion for the propagation of its teaching. On this matter the Quran categorically emphasises that;
“There is no compulsion in religion. Surely, the right way has become distinct from error; so whosoever refuses to be led by those who transgress, and believes in Allah, has surely grasped a strong handle which knows no breaking. And Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing.” (Quran chapter 2, verse 257)
The verse removes the misunderstanding (about Islamic teachings and the early Jihads) and not only forbids Muslims in most emphatic words to use force for converting non- Muslims to Islam, but also gives reasons why force should not be used for this purpose. It is because truth stands out distinct from error, so there has remained no justification for using force.
The great and real Jihad, according to Islam, is to preach the Message of the Qur’an harmoniously. Thus to strive for the propagation of Islam and dissemination and diffusion of its teachings is the Jihad which the Muslims are enjoined to carry on with unabated zeal.
Jihad Wars in West Africa
The Muslim Movements (“Jihad”) in the 19th C West Africa
By the standards highlighted above, it is vain to think that the 19th C West African movements by Muslims were Jihads in the authentic sense of the true Islamic teachings. Islam strictly forbids taking up arms against anyone and thus, waging war for political and economic gain is not permissible. Then what were the movements all about?
The 19th C “Jihad” Movements in West Africa were revolts by the oppressed masses led by a new class of Muslim elites like Uthman dan Fodio and Al’haj Umar that wanted political freedom from oppressive regimes by using Islam as a uniting factor between 1800 and 1880s. Nevertheless, because the movements were organised and led by radical Muslim zealots against non-Muslim or nominal Muslim rulers. they are alleged to have been Islamic religious reforming arrangements.
The Jihads began in the present day Nigeria among the Hausa and Fulani and ended in the Senegal. They started by sweeping across the Hausa city-states. By the end of the second half of the 19th C, they had spread to the entire Western Sudan.
The most prominent these movements were the three “Jihads” of Uthman dan Fodio which led to the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate State; of Ahmadou Lobbo (Hamad Ban) in Massina and the Bambara and; of Al-hadj Umar and the Tukulor Empire.
The Origins of the Jihad Movements in Western Sudan (West Africa)
The Jihad Movements of Western Sudan are traced from the 11th C when the Islam became powerful in the region. The Islamic faith spread in a number of states including Mali, Songhai and Bornu which indeed had deep rooted Islamic presence in the earlier centuries.
However for a variety of reasons by 1800 the fervour of Islamic faith had waned considerably. For instance, at the end of 16th C, the empire of Songhai disintegrated into small states that fell under traditionalist rulers. More so, even the Hausa states, of which Gobir and Katsina were the most powerful with a great Muslim population, were ruled either by traditional religionists or nominal Muslims. This upset the influence of Islam in West Africa.
By the beginning of the 19th C, famous Muslims scholars and zealots like Uthman dan Fodio, Ahrnadou Lobbo and A1-Hadj Umar were threatened by this chaotic state of affairs which could lead to complete decay of islamic faith. They took it to be their duty to reform and purify Islam by enforcing the observation and respect of Islamic laws as prescribed in the Holy Quran.
Uthman dan Fodio and the Jihad in Gobir
Uthman dan Fodio was most famous wandering scholar and reformist whose influence spread through the Western Sudan. He was born in 1754 to a Fulani Islamic teacher in Gobir — one of the Hausa states (in Northern Nigeria). After studies at Agadis, he returned to Hausa land at the age of 20 to begin teaching and preaching in Gobir, Kebbi and Zamfara. He demanded a stronger religious leadership within the state and complained against grievances of the oppressed masses.
By the 1790’s his fame had become a potential threat to the pagan king, Yunfa of Gobir who attempt to assassinate Uthman and his Muslim community. But Uthman and his companions withdrew to Gudu on the western frontier of Gobir. This was an imitation of Hijra - Prophet Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to Medina. His supporters from all over Western Sudan, majority of Fulani, followed by Tuaregs and Hausa followed him at Gudu.
In 1804, Uthman declared a revolution (“Jihad”) against Gobir, and, by 1808 he had conquered. He built a new capital at Sokoto hence marking the foundation of the Sokoto caliphate. The Jibad spread until the caliphate became the largest unified state in subS aharan Africa at the time. His success triggered other revolts like those led by Ahmad Lobbo and Al-hadi Umar. On his death. Uthman was succeeded by his son Muhammad Bello and brother Abdullahi as new Caliphs.
Ahmadou Lobbo and the Jihad in Massina and the Bambara
Ahmadou Lobbo was a more active reformist Fulani Cleric. He followed Uthman dan Fodio’s leadership in some respect.
Lobbo’s fame as a scholar, reformer and devoted Muslim spread, and thus faced the same fate of persecution as had fallen Uthman dan Fodio. He performed his “Hijra” to Hamdulullahi, and proclaimed the “Jihad” against the king of Jene in 1816. His campaign began as a civil war to liberate Fulani from the Bambara of Segu and the Massina and also an effort to create a rightly guided Muslim state. His campaign was successful and he set up the Hamdulillahi Caliphate.
Al-hadj Umar and the Tukolor empire.
Umar was born in Futa Tooro in about 1797 and studied to become Muslim cleric. In 1820, he went on Hadj (pilgrimage) to Mecca and returned in 1839. In his early 20 years travelling and studying he witnessed and was influenced by Islamic reform movements.
Tukulor comprised of three states of Futa Tooro, Futa Bondu and Futa Jalon. Between 1839 and 1848 basing in Futa Jalon, Umar made wide preaching tours among Mandinka and Tukulor and won many followers. As the Almamis of the Futa Kingdoms were worried of Urnar’s message and popularity, they expelled him from Fula Jalon, and he performed his flight (hijra) to Dinguiray and thus followed the example of dan Fodio and Ahmedou Lobbo. With his followers, Umar overrun the Futas (Futa Tooro, Futa Bondu, and Futa Jalon), the Bambara states of Bambuk and Kaasta, the entire Senegal and later the Massina to establish a large unified Tukolor Empire. He died in 1864 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Ahmadou Sekou.
Causes of Muslim Movements (“Jihads ‘9 in West Africa (Western Sudan)
The causes of the 19th C Muslim movements in West Africa are multifaceted; though the movements are said to have been religious in cause, were largely motivated by plenty of long and short term social, political, economic and intellectual grievances (forces) against aristocracies by the oppressed masses majority of who were Muslim communities of Fulani, Hausa and other communities including Tuareges. The causes are as follows;
Socio-religious Reasons
1. Need for purification and strengthening of Islam.
The movements called for the restoration of Islamic faith to its devotional standard. Preachers and orthodox Muslims accused Nominal Muslims rulers and commoners who were abandoning orthodox Islam, for example by incorporating Traditional and Christian religious practices with Islam. Such practices provoked Muslim zealots like Uthman dan Fodio for change and defend Islam from decay.
2. Moral decay.
Immorality ensued after the collapse of Muslim states like Mali and Songhai. There was widespread corruption and injustice in the courts of law as the ruling classes claimed bribes and passed judgment in favour of the rich. Divorce, adultery, theft, robbery and murder were also rampant. To that effect Muslim scholars intended to install the rule of law that would restore justice and put things in order as required by the Islamic faith.
3. Selling of Muslims into slavery by the Hausa rulers.
This pricked the conscience of majority Muslims leaving them displeased. Muslim clerics preached against the practice as completely against God’s desire and humanity. Such disgruntlements could not be tolerated hence called for immediate action.
4. Unfair taxation.
The rulers imposed heavy taxes on the people. For instance merchants and nomads, majority of whom were Fulani disliked the heavy market and cattle taxes. Making matters worse, tax collection involved brutal measures such as flogging. On such basis, the wealthy urban Fulani looked at the Jihads as great chance to establish rule of law and secure states that would protect their wealth and treat them fairly.
5. The Muslims also objected conscription into armies to fight fellow Muslims.
It is against the Quran teachings for Muslims to fight each other yet Hausa rulers recruited Muslims in their armies and used them in fighting and raiding neighbouring Muslim societies. This moved the scholars to organise these movements to bring things into the right order.
6. The influence of Muslim groups from North Africa.
The spread of Muslim brotherhoods of Tijaniyya and Qadiriyya to Western Sudan played a role in influencing the religious movements in the region. The brotherhoods were embraced by Muslim scholars like Uthman dan Fodio (belonged to Qadiriyya) and Al-hadj Umar (to Tijaniyya) and inspired them to spread Islamic faith in the entire West African region.
7. The Muslim world experience.
The past history before the Jihads had witnessed the collapse of Islamic states such as Turkey, Songhai and Bornu. This threatened orthodox Muslims who felt that unless the situation was reversed, Islam would enter into total decay and eventually would be surpassed by other religions like African traditional and Christian religions.
Political Reasons
8. The oppressive rule of the Hausa rulers.
The autocratic tendencies of the Hausa rulers downgraded their administration in the eyes of their people. In response, the Fulani, Hausa and Tukulor Muslims and non-Muslims joined the movements because it was a golden opportunity to oust the oppressive rulers in order to create a fair government of their favour.
9. Intellectual force.
Muslim youth and clerics were better educated and widely travelled that they knew the world better than illiterate pagan rulers. They were often employed as judges, secretaries, scribes, authors and diplomats. Despite their education, they were unfairly represented with few positions in government. Their education status motivated them to seek for changes and thus the Jihads were also perceived as intellectual revolutions.
10. Charismatic leadership.
Muslim scholars such as Uthman dan Fodio, A1-hadj Umar and Ahmadou Lobbo used their scholarly skills to spearhead the revolts. Their wondering, rhetoric and heroic preaching spread their fame and influence throughout western Sudan. Moreover, their denunciation of evil acts like corruption greatly appealed to many Muslims and non- Muslims whom they inspired to wage revolutions against the oppressive rulers.
11. The influence of the Fulani.
The movements were largely led and supported by the Fulani who mostly being immigrants to various parts of West Africa but also much educated and wealthy, must have wanted to use wars to become the next class of rulers. Hence the call for revolts was also an appeal for power struggle and not merely done so out of Islamic zeal.
However much the reasons for the movements could have been partly religious and with the intention to free the oppressed from the autocratic rulers, but that does not qualify the revolutions to be Jihads of the authentic Islamic teachings that forbids taking up arms against anyone for political and/or economic gains or for the spread of faith — unless for self defence.
Effects of Jihad Movements in Western Sudan
1. Formation of large centralised political units.
Empires such as Sokoto Caliphate and Tukulor, and also Mandika that reshaped their administration along the Islamic lines emerged due the revolutions. For instance the Sokoto Caliphate was a result uniting the small Hausa states such as Katsina, Zamfara and Zaria along with the non-Hausa peoples.
2. The birth to new political systems.
The revolutions inspired the creation of theocratic states (caliphate system) of Sokoto, Massina and Tukulor. Basing on Islamic democratic principles, these states were far better than the despotic Hausa states. The Caliphates were the largest political units in the 19th C, made up of several emirates.
3. Contributed to the renewal and spread of Islam.
Installation of Sharia Law boosted moral standards, so evil practices such as corruption, drinking and bribery were checked. Preachers and the masses were set free and learning spread. Islam that had been a religion of a small minority in 1800 spread that by 1850 the largest part of Western Sudan was Muslim. In addition the just administration and condemnation of evil practices attracted many to Islam.
4. The “Jihads” stimulated education.
The leaders were first and foremost scholars with volumes of learning materials which they circulated throughout Western Sudan to educate masses about Islamic, societal norms and the world. Learning institutions and libraries were set up at some places like Sokoto and Segu. Literacy became necessary for high office, and Arabic was made official language of communication.
5. Unity.
Using Islam as a factor, leaders solidly joined different peoples of Western Sudan like the Fulani, Bambara, Hausa and Touregs together as Islam undermined tribal loyalties. Along with that, the Islamic brotherhoods of Qadiriyya and Tijaniyya emphasised unity and adherence to the moral code of Islam and zeal for the spread of the faith.
6. Peace and order.
The Jihads brought peace that enabled economic progress. Trade flourished as caravan routes between North Africa and Western Sudan were safe, farmers could till their soil, herdsmen tend their cattle and artisans and merchants play their trades undisturbed.
The Jihads of Western Sudan inspired the rise of Jihads in other parts of Africa. Among the inspired was the Mahdist revolt in 1881-85 in Sudan led by Muhammad Ahmad. The revolt intended to overthrow colonialism and carrying out socio-economic transformation in Sudan.
7. Creation of strong armies.
Muslim leaders created strong armies comprising of Muslim majority that fought the old rulers and their corrupt systems to create new and just order. The armies also stood to safeguard their states. It was on such basis that the Mandika Empire of Samore Toure’s posed a strong fight against the French colonisers for a long time, 188 1-88.
8. The “Jihad” movements stirred the birth of nationalism in West Africa.
Jihads raised a sense of political conscious and instilled a great need to safe self- governance against foreign control from European imperialists. It was on this ground that Mandika Empire of Samore Toure fought against the imposition of colonial rule by the French long (1881-88).
9. Disunity. As Islam spread widely in the region, a minority group remained loyal to other religions like African Traditional Religion and Christianity. Besides, the Muslim population was divided along the lines of the Muslim brotherhoods of Qadiriyya and Tijaniyya. While Qadiriyya stressed study and intellectual activity as the way to salvation, Tijaniyya stressed salvation through action and emphasised strict adherence to the moral code of Islam and the zeal for the spread of faith.
10. Loss of lives and destruction of property.
Many people died and properties like houses and firms were destroyed during the fighting. Villages which became hostile to the Jihadists were raided. Similarly, during the wars commerce and agricultural production were on stand still.
Role of Islam in State formation in the 19th C
The role of Islam in state building in the 19th C was more remarkable in West Africa Western Sudan). Through the “Jihad” movements, the old systems were substituted by the more organised and acceptable systems. States formed included the Sokoto Caliphate by Uthman dan Fodio; the States of Massina and Bambara; by Ahmadou Lobbo (Hamad Ban) and the Tukolor Empire by Al-hadj Umar. The “Jihads” also influenced the formation of Mandika Empire by Samore Toure.
1. Rise of strong leaders.
Islam groomed state founding leaders like Uthman dan Fodio, Al-hadj Umar, and Ahmad Sekou. On their scholarly, leadership and organisation skills, such men formed respected and majority supported leadership class under which new states like the Sokoto Caliphate and Tukola Empire were established.
2. Establishment of strong standing armies.
The armies were made among the displeased Muslims and non-Muslims especially Fulani, Hausa and Tuareges to overthrow the oppressive regimes. They maintained law and order and protected their new states against foreign attacks like the Mandika that resisted French colonial invasion for long (188 1-88).
3. State unification.
Through the “Jihads”, Islam unified small political units into large states. For instance, the Sokoto Caliphate that became the largest state in the 19th C West Africa was as a result of joining small Hausa states such as Katsina, Zamfara and Zaria and nearby societies. Other unified states included the Tukola and Mandinka empires.
4. Strengthened unity.
Islam was uniting factor for the establishment of large states in the 19th C West Africa. As Islam became the overwhelming faith, ethnic loyalties were suffocated and that enabled leaders such as Uthman Dan Fodio to rally behind them different ethicises like the Fulani, Hausa, Bambara, and Touregs to form solid states like the Sokoto Caliphate.
5. Islam stimulated education. Muslim clerics and ruling classes of men like Uthman dan Fodio and Al-hadj Umar in Muslim states like Sokoto Caliphate were themselves scholars. They trained people on different fields like teachers, administrators, judges and scribes. They opened learning institutions and libraries at various areas like Sokoto and Segu and circulated written materials throughout Western Sudan. This spread awareness about religion and the world and justifies why Muslim states like Mandika resisted colonialism.
6. Establishment of efficient administrative and judicial system. A systematic centralised Caliphate system was introduced. At the top was the caliph, under him were Emirs in charge of the Emirates (provinces), district officials in charge of the districts and village-heads for villages. The Caliph was as well the highest judge. Sharia Law was applied to instill justice and eliminate immoralities like corruption, adultery, murder and robbery that consumed pre-Jihad society. Moreover, a fair taxation system based on income basis was introduced.
7. Islam promoted trade.
History acknowledges Islam as a religion that promotes trade and certainly encourages fairness and honesty. The Muslim Fulani and Bambara and the ruling classes controlled trade and production of major trading items like Kola-nuts, Palm Oil and iron tools. Towns like Kano, developed into major market centres that attracted many traders. Trade helped states acquire wealth, firearms and iron tools.
8. Restoration of peace and order.
Islam phased out the chaotic conditions which were source of anarchy in West Africa as leaders applied the Islamic principles based on equality, sincerity, humility and justice. The wide spread of Islam united people and thus ended internal rivalries. Peace and order contributed to political stability and economic prosperity.
9. Consolidation of Feudalism.
After the Jihads, feudalism was strengthened in Muslim states. Land was controlled by the Caliph (Head of state) who distributed it to the Emirs (province heads) who then distributed it to the subjects in their areas. The subjects offered land were obliged to pay tributes to the Caliph and the Emirs as rewards for the land. The control of land by the ruling classes gave them power to win loyalty of their subjects.
By large, Islam does not permit the use of force or coercion for the purpose of its propagation, and strictly forbids taking up arms against anyone, therefore it is altogether vain and absurd for Muslims to take part or support any form of violence in the name of spreading Islam. Indeed, all sorts of aggression against; Muslims or non-Muslims and all God’s creatures are contrary to the clear teaching of the Qur’an. Selfish people use the word Jihad as an excuse for the fulfillment of their selfish desires.
Spread of Islam in West Africa
MFECANE AND ITS INFLUENCE IN STATE FORMATION
The term Mfecane means; crushing or grinding in Nguni language. Mfecane is however, used to describe the early 19th C great upheaval in Southern African Bantu societies that occurred as a result of tribal wars starting from 1818 and lasted for nearly 20 years.
To this note, Mfecane was a period of turmoil engineered by the Nguni people it southern Africa in Zululand. It was a period of wars of wondering characterised by massive killings, migrations and unification of people to form strong defensive forces
The Background of Mfecane
The Mfecane was a complex process with great regional variations as expressed by historians. The events that sparked off Mfecane occurred in the Zululand and Natal, among Northern Nguni who lived in a narrow area bounded by Delagoa Bay in the North, the Tugela river in the South, the Indian ocean in the East, and the Drakensberg Mountains in the West, the area that possessed fertile soils, reliable rainfall and conducive environment for both farming and pastoralism.
Internal stresses had developed in the region since the middle of the 18th C. As population was rapidly expanding, it became increasingly difficult to find unclaimed land suitable for the customary farming, pastures and hunting grounds leading to clashes between communities. Besides, the customary cattle raiding between societies were developing into lethal contest.
In the first decade of the 19th C, powerful northern Nguni chiefdoms; the Mthethwa under Dingiswayo, the Ndwandwe under Zwide and Zulu under Shaka were expanding at the expense of their weaker neighbours. They gained control over most of their neighbouring chiefdoms and created rival confederacies that from 1917 clashed with each other in struggle to control more land. The disruptions between them are what are known as Mfecane.
Mfecane
Causes of the Mfecane
1. Increased population pressure.
This was the main internal stress that led to Mfecane. Due to favourable climate and fertile soils in Nguniland, population rapidly expanded that it outmatched the available resources. As land became inadequate, it became difficult for groups of people to find more land for farming and pasture. The hunger for land raised conflicts that forced Nguni tribes adopt regular armies to fight for more land thus Mfecane.
2. The struggle to control trade with the Delagoa Bay.
From the late 18th C, European maritime traders at the Delagoa Bay were trading with African societies in the vicinities like the Mthethwa, Ndwandwe and Zulu. The struggles to control the trade and acquire items like slaves, ivory and gold needed by maritime traders led to conflicts among the chiefdoms.
3. The Boers expansion northwards.
The Boer Trek in the interior heightened the severity of Mfecane. With their determination to control any fertile land in the interior, the Boers fought African tribes included the Zulu, Nguni, Xhosa and Kumalo dislodging from the areas. The wars caused a lot suffering as tribes started fighting each other for the little land left.
4. The rise of Shaka as the King of Zulu state.
Shaka was over ambitious and hostile and indeed much responsible for intensif.ing violence in the area. With a large, strong standing well-organised army he built of about 40,000 warriors, Shaka was determined to expand and absorb all his neighbouring states into his dominance. His extreme ruthlessness resulted in constant wars, massive death and forced many to flee from the area.
5. The great pride in military skills of Nguni trial leaders.
The Nguni tribal leaders like Zwide of the Ndwandwe and Shaka of the Zulu fought each other to control the region by forcefully incorporating their neighbours into their hegemony. The constant wars between them forced many communities abandon their traditional homes to seek refuge elsewhere.
6. Attacks by the Griquas.
Since the early 19th C, coloured people from the Cape colony, known as Griquas, were a source of instability among the southern Bantu communities. Using horses and firearms, the Griquas from time to time attacked the Nguni societies like the Sotho and capture women and children whom they sold as slaves to the Boers and British farmers.
7. Deadly cattle raiding acts.
The Nguni adopted lethal cattle raiding activities against each other to expand their herds. As herds expanded communities competed for more grazing lands. The two; cattle raiding and need for more pastureland resulted in endless conflicts which ultimately led to Mfecane.
8. Transformation from communal to feudal system.
It is argued that this was as well the root cause of Mfecane. Emergence of classes gave way to the rise of strong landlords - tribal leaders who were itching to consolidate power by acquiring more land. This settled the Nguni into small but rival chiefdoms such as Ngwane, Mthethwa, Zulu and Ndwandwe which contested for control of land in the region.
Effects of the Mfecane
Mfecane was indeed one of the notable 19th C African revolutions that have far reaching effects that touched a vast region of South, Central and East Africa. However much it brought havoc, it also brought considerable military, political and social development. The effects include;
1. Massive depopulation.
Large parts of southern Africa namely, the regions of Natal, Orange Free and Transvaal states were largely depopulated. Some societies were annihilated as thousands were massacred and more forced to flee from the constant tribal wars.
2. Economic and social disruptions.
Mfecane made life more insecure so people could hardly concentrate on economic activities like agriculture and trade leading to widespread famine, properties were and livestock stolen. Moreover, the migrating communities like the Ngoni raided societies they passed through like the Hehe for food, women and labourers. State building. Some small tribal Nguni communities transformed to powerful militaristic centralised states. Notably, Shaka forcefully unified several Nguni societies to form a strong Zulu state. Other states like Sotho by Moshoeshoe, Swazi by Sobhuza and the Ndebele by Mzilikazi were formed by the migrating communities in south and central Africa.
3. Redistribution of Bantu tribes.
Mfecane forced migrations of several Nguni tribes from southern Africa. The migrating tribes like the Ngoni and Ndebele also invaded societies they came across forcing them out. This chain of reaction led to continuous trouble and migrations that redistributed Bantu tribes in South, Central and East Africa.
4. Emergence of powerful military leaders.
The severity of tribal wars led to the rise of strong military leaders who emerged to defend their tribes. The leaders included Shaka of the Zulu, Mzilikazi of the Ndebele and Moshoeshoe of the Basuto.
5. Military transformation.
The intensification of tribal wars, forced the Bantu tribes to have a military outlook that they never had before. Certainly, southern Africa became a home of military innovation. For instance Shaka the notable military innovator introduced new weapons, the Assagai (short stabbing spear) and new tactics like the age-regiment system and cow-horn military strategy. Such inventions were previously unknown in local warfare.
6. Emergence of migrations and refugees.
Bands of northern Nguni refugees and Sotho groups who were driven from their homes scattered through the region. A number of surviving families and communities migrated (ran away) as refugees like the Ndebele and Northern Nguni who migrated northwards to Central and East Africa.
7. Adoption of dubious acts.
Some groups among the remnants of the upheaval having lost means of production, that is, land and cattle, adopted dubious practices. For instance the Tlokwa were reduced to a miserable life of pillage and banditry and some even resorted to cannibalism. Also some among the southern Nguni became beggars-known as Mfengu.
8. Provoked more Boer penetration into the interior of South Africa.
The Boers were encouraged to move into the interior by the availability of wide fertile land abandoned by the massacred and migrating communities from the turbulence of Mfecane.
The Influence of Mfecane in State Formation during the 19th Century
The Mfecane was an amazing terrible disaster in Africa, though its mark shall never be forgotten. One of its remarkable contribution was the accidental and as if planned role in state formation in southern, central and eastern Africa. States like Zulu, Sotho and Swazi in southern Africa and Ndebele, Gaza and Kololo in central Africa were its direct result while the Hehe and Nyamwezi in East Africa were indirectly influenced by the same disaster.
1. Mfecane raised charismatic leaders.
The ceaseless wars led to appearance of strong military leaders who organised forces to guard their people from destruction. Men like Shaka of the Zulu, Sobhuza of the Swazi and Moshoeshoe of the Sotho (states in southern Africa), Mzilikazi of the Ndebele and Soshangane of Gaza (states in Central Africa) organised their people to form protective states of their own. In East Africa, men like Mirambo of Nyamwezi and Mnyigumba of the Hehe rose to protect their societies from the invading Ngoni people.
2. Military advancement.
Due to Mfecane, innovative military tribal leaders notably Shaka, established disciplined armies, new weapons like the Assagai and methods like cow-horn strategy to build strong Zulu state. Emulating Shaka’s tactics, other tribal leaders like Sobhuza, Moshoeshoe, Mzilikazi, and Shoshangane formed strong armies to establish states of their own. Same tactics were borrowed by leaders like Mirambo of the Nyamwezi and Mnyigumba and Mkwawa of the Hehe in East Africa to strengthen their states.
3. Unification of weak states.
Societies like Hehe, Yao and Nyamwezi that encountered Mfecane (Ngoni) emigrants were forced to form political unions (states alliances) to protect themselves from the Ngoni who attacked societies they passed through for land, cattle, women and labourers. The Hehe tribes for example were unified by Mnyigumba and Mkwawa who borrowed Ngoni military tactics to form a strong centralised Hehe kingdom.
4. The role of Mfecane migrations.
States like Ndebele and Gaza in present day Zimbabwe and Mozambique respectively were as a result of Mfecane migrations. The migrating Nguni like the Ndebele moved in large groups of thousands hence easily form organised states where they settled. Also along their movements, the Ngoni fought and incorporated members of societies they encountered leading to population growth in the new areas they settled.
5. Development of economic activities.
Trade boomed as the turmoil availed more items like the captives who were sold as slaves to European maritime traders by African societies. In addition, the migrating Ngoni carried new productive and warlike skills to central and east Africa that aided societies like Yao, Hehe and Nyamwezi, improve security, agriculture and trade. Such skills enabled them control the central and southern routes of the Long Distance Trade. Trade availed societies with firearms and wealth that was used to consolidate states.
6. Mfecane also stimulated cultural and ethnic assimilations.
Stronger Mfecane migrating groups conquered weak communities they came across. The conquered groups were absorbed into the culture of their conquerors. This led to the establishment of largely plural (multi-ethnic) societies but united by a new adopted culture. The Kumalo, for example incorporated other Nguni refugees and some Sotho to form the Ndebele culture and Kingdom.
7. Formation of a powerful Zulu state by Shaka.
Using his large strong standing army, Shaka unified all the Mfecane weakened Nguni societies in Natal to form a strong militaristic Zulu state. The incorporation of other Nguni communities within the Zulu control transformed the Zulu chiefdom into a large centralised state.
Shaka of the Zulu
PRE-COLONIAL EDUCATION AND CULTURE
Pre-colonial Education
Education is the transmission of knowledge, skills, values and experiences from one person to another or one generation to another. It is a lifelong experience given that one acquires education from birth to death.
Pre-colonial education was the indigenous transition of knowledge, skills, values and experiences from one person to another or one generation to another that was provided in Africa before colonisation of Africa. This education was a means to transmit a heritage from one generation to the next for the continuity of a culture and to help individuals integrate themselves into their community.
Types of Education in Pre-colonial Africa
Basically, the two most distinguished types of educations known worldwide, that is, informal and formal education were provided in pre-colonial Africa.
a) Informal Education
It is the type of education without a systematic procedure. It is not provided at school, did not follow an orderly prescribed curriculum or a timetable, not imparted by specialised personnel. In the pre-colonial era, it was provided by the elders who mainly relied on personal experiences or what they had. Knowledge was transmitted orally. The young learnt by imitating the elders or parents. Boys practiced what fathers or men did while girls practiced what their mothers or women did. This is what is known as traditional education widely provided in pre-colonial era in Africa.
b) Formal Education
This is a systematic type of education characterised by a well- defined structure, that is, systematic curriculum, given by specifically qualified personnel (teachers), limited to a specific period and observes strict discipline. It is the type of education provided in schools involving reading and writing.
Formal education was provided in Africa long before the arrival of the Europeans. Egypt developed the earliest known literature in the world since 4th Millennium BC. Literature, schools and universities like Al-Azhar and Fatimid universities in Egypt, Fez University in Morocco and Timbuktu University in Mali had developed in Africa before the coming of not only colonialism but the Europeans in general. Besides, several religious schools (Madrasas) developed in areas where Islam took root like in North Africa, Western Sudan and along the coast of East Africa. Arabic literature spread widely in those regions and others, for instance the Yao and Hehe were using Arabic in their transactions.
Timbuktu University
Characteristics of Pre-colonial Education
Though both formal and informal education had been in existence in African, long before the coming of the Europeans, informal education was the widely given. Therefore, in laying the characteristics of pre-colonial education, more attention will be put on traditional education.
a) Education was closely linked to the environment.
Traditional education was dictated by the environment of society, so, provided the necessary skills needed to master the environment. It thus gave life skills fitting a particular society like agriculture, pastoralism and security.
b) All elders were teachers and all young ones were learners.
The elders taught the young aspects of life and rituals that would help them in adulthood. Parents specifically played an important part in the education of their children.
c) Education was gender centred.
Boys and girls were taught separately to prepare each sex for its adult roles. Boys were brought up to take occupation their fathers engaged in like trade, hunting and industry. Girls were expected to learn domestic chores such as cooking.
d) Knowledge was transmitted orally.
Education was conducted through the word of mouth. No written documents were used to facilitate learning and keep records. People were to memorise knowledge acquired like the riddles, stories, legends, rituals and life skills.
e) Absence of segregation and discrimination.
Education was given to all members of the community regardless of their sex and social status. Girls and boys, young, youth and elders, people from ruling classes and commoners all received education.
f) It was non-commercial.
Traditional education was freely provided to all members of the community regardless of their social status. People received education freely and thus also disseminated it to others freely.
g) It was closely associated with society’s culture.
The transmission of culture was a core part of traditional education. Knowledge transmission was intimately integrated with the social, cultural, artistic, religious and recreational life of the indigenous peoples.
h) Education was not uniform.
Since pre-colonial education was determined by the environment, economic activities and culture of the society, it was not homogenous due to diversity of environmental and cultural set-ups of African societies.
i) Education was both informal and formal.
Informal education was all over the continent provided by the elders who relied on their experiences. The young learnt orally and practically by imitating the elders or parents. Formal education was provided in some areas like Egypt, Western Sudan and East African coast where literature, schools and universities like Al-Azhar and Fatimid universities in Egypt were built.
Learning how to fight
Content of Pre-colonial Education
The curriculum of traditional education consisted of;
a) The environment.
The environment of a given society dictated what was to be taught. The focus to equip individuals with the needed knowledge and skills to master their environment.
b) Economic activities.
Skills for self-sustenance and economic development of individuals and society were central part of this education. Skills such as farming. pastoralism, fishing, industry and trading were given in reference to the environment of a particular community.
c) Culture and traditions.
Cultural and traditional values were passed on through ceremonies, games, festivals, dancing, singing and drawing. Culture was society’s identification.
d) Morals.
This education is also referred to as moral education due to its greater emphasis on morality. It cultivated acceptable behaviours and thus stressed on discipline and obedience, honesty, dutifulness, good communication and respect to the elders.
Methodology used in the Transmission of Knowledge and Skills
a) Practical skills.
It was learning by doing. Education was disseminated at fields of work; while farming, herding, hunting, fishing, cooking and so forth according sex and age.
b) Oral transmission.
Knowledge was basically handed down orally through daily instructions on work, storytelling, through riddle, poems and idioms.
c) Social, cultural, religious and recreational practices of the community.
These included ceremonies, games, festivals, dancing, singing and drawing.
d) Memorisation.
Education based on human memory. Knowledge and skills acquired were not written due absence of writing skills in majority African societies.
e) Experimentation.
Curiosity and inventions were encouraged and appreciated. This encouraged innovativeness and through trial and error people learnt and invented.
Building a House
Objective and Roles of Pre-colonial Education
i) Imparting good morals.
Traditional education aimed at enabling individuals to cultivate good habits and developing goodness. Discipline and obedience, honesty, good communication and empathetic to the elders were core elements taught.
ii) Preserve the culture of society.
Education looked at passing to the young the societal customs and traditions. So the culture, traditions, rituals, legends and tales were its cardinal parts.
iii) Enable the young master the environment.
Education was determined by the environment. The young were to be provided with skills needed to master their environment. For example different seasons in the year, types of plant and animal species and their importance.
iv) Prepare the young for adulthood responsibilities.
This educational consisted of teaching aspects of life that would help individuals in adulthood roles that mainly were parenthood, leadership and security duties. Boys were to imitate their fathers and girls their mothers.
v) Promote peace and cooperation.
Traditional Education based on the philosophy of communalism so, it looked to prepare children to provide for the community. Emphasis was put on working together and harmonious living.
vi) Provide economic skills.
Education in pre-colonial Africa was to act as a catalyst in production. It was given in various fields such as in agriculture, medicine, industry and trade. It aimed at enabling individuals to survive and provide society with essential needs like food.
vii) Provide skills for defence.
Defence of the society was a responsibility of all community members particularly men. Safety education was given and people were engaged in activities as archery, wrestling, use of spears, bows and arrows and climbing trees.
Strength of Pre-colonial Education
1. Education was practical.
Pre-colonial education was very pragmatic by imparting special skills needed for man’s well-being and survival. Such skill included medicine practitioners (doctors) and midwives, masonry, industry and agriculture. People learned by practice.
2. Education was non-commercial.
In pre-colonial Africa, education was freely provided to all members of the community regardless of their social status. People received education freely and thus also disseminated it freely to others.
3. Absence of discrimination.
Education was given to all members of the community regardless of their sex and social status. By doing so, education preferred people to be the same (equal), enjoy the same privileges and share the pleasures of nature.
4. It was a relevant education.
Education was closely linked to the environment and therefore equipped people with the vital knowledge to master the environment since it determined their lives. For example, knowing different seasons for different activities like farming and trade.
5. Encouraged hardworking.
This education trained individuals to be useful to their societies by giving economic skills for self-sustenance and development of society. Economic life skills such as farming, pastoralism, industry, fishing and trading were encouraged to enable people earn good living. Laziness was discouraged and punished.
6. Preserved culture.
Education was helpful in the conservation of societies’ cultural aspects. This was not only done in cultural, religious and recreational ceremonies, games, and festivals. But also in traditions, rituals, legends, songs and tales which were passed to the young.
7. Encouraged specialisation.
Specialisation mainly based on gender. age and types of economic activities of individuals or communities. Men performed economic activities like farming, grazing cattle, industry and trade, while women concentrated on domestic roles like cooking and raising children. Societies concentrated on different activities like farming or industry or fishing or trade depending on the environmental resources available.
8. Emphasis on morality.
Someone with good character was considered educated. Recipients of traditional education were supposed portray characters like respect, obedience, honesty, and faithfulness to the elders and the entire community and good communication skills.
9. Encouraged peaceful co-existence.
Pre-colonial education built and consolidated peace and cooperation by promoting communality living. It prepared children to love one another, work together, promote peace and built a strong sense of belonging to their community needs.
Making Hair Styles
Weaknesses of Pre-colonial Education
1. Traditional education was partly mythical.
What was pointed in the stories, myths and fables mostly lacked scientific proof. For example traditional stories on the origin of man (creation), were mostly imaginary descriptions of historical or religious ideas.
2. It was parochial.
Education was limited to only few topics as the minds of educators did not go beyond provision of a fixed knowledge on the community environment, culture and emphasising humble submission to communal norms and values. People mostly lacked knowledge beyond their environmental circumstances.
3. It was not uniform.
The fact that education was determined by the community’s environment, economic activities and culture, it was not homogenous. For example knowledge and skills passed in farming communities differed from that given in pastoral communities.
4. It was associated with bad cultural practices.
Some awful cultural values and taboos were passed to individuals through traditional education. These included murder of twins in societies like Benin and customs that undermined women like prohibiting them to eat certain foods like eggs and chicken in some societies and denying them the right of inheritance.
5. It largely based on memory.
The absence of writing made people depend on the power of individuals’ memory for retention and transmission of all learned ideas to individuals and future generations. But memory could fail and in the event of the death of a custodian of some useful information or skill, all was lost.
6. It was conservative.
Education was predominantly static in subject matter. The fact that it was determined by the environment, it took long for people to acquire new ideas since environment changed over a long period of time. Also certain specialised skills such as medicine and tool making were kept a secret of a few who passed to their children.
7. Gender bias.
Traditional education portrayed elements of gender bias in as far as girls and boys participation in society was concerned. Women were relegated to listeners and would be confined to the kitchen while boys were prepared for intellectual ideas and practices.
8. Lacked qualified teachers.
The idea that all adults could contribute to the educational upbringing of the children was illogical. The elders could not teach beyond their general experiences and imaginations. Some based on the little knowledge given or what they heard from others. Lack of specialised teachers meant lack of specific knowledge on issues.
Despite the denigration by the Western countries, Africans had an equally worthwhile education. The fact that pre-colonial Africa did not have ‘schools,’ did not mean that people were not educated. They learned by living and doing. People were taught the life skills, and the behaviour expected of society members. Indeed, it was an all-round education, that also gave the children a sense of security, belonging and identity.
Culture in Pre-colonial Africa
Culture is the total way of life of the people of a given society in a given time. It is the customs and habits of a particular society.
Culture includes all man’s created aspects of life in a given environment such as customs, traditions, legends, language, beliefs, education, governance systems and artistic expressions like songs, dancing and games. Culture was vital in shaping societies’ values and directed the daily trend of affairs of the society.
Importance of Culture in Pre-colonial Africa
1. It was a central part of education system of societies.
Through culture, knowledge, skills, experiences and values were passed to children and future generations to another.
2. It was identification.
People were distinguished form others by their cultural presentation since African societies had different cultural aspects — there was no one African culture. Culture built and consolidated unity and cooperation. Cultural relations tied people together. For instance people marrying from different clans bonded different clans or the whole tribe together.
3. Preserved the history of society.
Cultural aspects like tales, fables, songs and games, myths and stories like creation stories and ceremonies like weddings, child birth and initiation told the past about the society.
4. Determined norms of society. It dictated the socio-political and economic life of the society by giving the daily routine which answers daily questions on what to do. how and when.
5. Culture encouraged hardworking.
By African culture everybody was a worker for the wellbeing of the whole society. Laziness was discouraged and the lazy punished.
6. Culture shaped societal morals.
It showed the young social values, taboos and beliefs. That is, the desirable and undesirable conducts of the community and so, encouraged people to do good while cautioning them of what is bad.
7. It maintained continuity of society.
Through initiation ceremonies, youth were graduated into adulthood. That tells that culture exposed youths to tasks similar to those of their elders and for that reason incorporated the youth into their society for continuity.
Weaknesses of Pre-colonial Culture
a) It was dictatorial.
African culture was not subjected to question. People were to obey everything without hesitation. Abuse or violation of any rule was punished. Punishment included flogging and sometimes death.
b) Gender inequality.
African culture was built on aspects of the superiority of men. Women were to always be subservient to men. For instance confined to domestic roles while men were prepared for economic practices like trade and industry and political issue of society.
c) Culture incorporated inhuman practices. In societies like Benin, twins were murdered by being buried alive as they perceived to be a curse in some communities. Other societies infertility among women was taken for a curse hence victims were sometimes divorced.
d) It was much mythical.
Some legendary beliefs were unrealistic with no elements of truth. For example the tales about creation. life and death lacked proof and differed from society to society. Others norms included prohibition of women to eat eggs and chicken.
e) Culture was conservative. It took long to change or incorporate new ideas and practices. Even when some practices seemed irrelevant, it was hard for society to abandon them.
Sample - Revision Questions
1. Assess why pre-colonial African societies did not develop the slave mode of production
2. The feudal mode of production did not develop in the entire African continent. Account for the variations. (Give six points)
3. Analyse five characteristics of the first non antagonistic mode of production which developed in Africa and elaborate three factors that show how African communal societies transformed to feudalism. (NECTA 2014)
4. Analyse the characteristics of pre-colonial exploitative modes of production in Africa. (Give four characteristics in each mode of production). (NECTA 2016)
5. How did Neolithic revolution affect the pre colonial African societies?
6. Though the characteristics of feudal mode of production were the same their approaches however were different. Identify six differences between the feudal mode of production practiced in Buganda with the one that along the coast of East Africa.
7. Discuss the main factors that facilitated the rise and development of the Nyarubanja system in the West lake region in pre colonial Africa.
8. Explain six outstanding features of the centralised societies that existed in prec olonial Africa. (NECTA 2013)
9. With vivid examples, account for the rise and expansion of large scale social political organisations in pre colonial African societies.
10. Describe six factors for the development of State Organisation in pre-colonial West African Societies. (NECTA 2016)
11. The emergence and consolidation of African societies was to a large extent due to internal of dynamic of the African societies rather than external influences. Discuss
12. Discuss how basic political organizations in Africa were related to the environment where they evolved.
13. Explain six roles of Islamic religion in the formation of Pre-colonial West African states. (NECTA 2015)
14. Discuss the political, social and economic factors for the 19th C religious movements in Western Africa.
15. Account for the outbreak of the political turmoil and its consequences among the Nguni speaking people of South Africa in the 19th Century.
16. By using six points, examine the influence of Mfecane war in the formation of centralised states in Central and East Africa during the 19th century. (NECTA 2017)
17. Examine four usefulness and four weakness of the pre-colonial education (NECTA 2012)
18. Assess the objectives and aspects of pre-colonial education
19. Examine critically the characteristics of pre colonial education and its role enhancing African cultural aspect
20. Pre-colonial African societies were dynamic. Justify this statement by giving six points. (NECTA— Private candidates 2015)
NEXT TOPIC:Topic 2 - AFRICA AND EUROPE IN THE 15TH CENTURY
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